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The Hebrew and Greek Text Forms of Canticles
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 Canticles or Song of Songs
The book of Canticles (Hebr. Sjir Hasjirim, 'Song of Songs'; Gr. Aisma Aismatoon) appears as a love song attributed to King Solomon. Man and woman (‘he’ and ‘she’) sing about their love for each other in dialogue form. Other characters (‘maidens’ and ‘brothers’) provide commentary to the whole. Probably, the song was originally recited during wedding parties. Now it forms part of the Jewish and Christian Canon.
In the Jewish tradition, Song of Songs is read during the Passover feast as an allegorical hymn about the love of God for his chosen people. In the same manner, Christians also interpret the Song of Songs as an image/reflection of Christ’s love for the Church.
The Hebrew text suggests that it is actually a compilation of different songs and song fragments. The tradition situates Song of Songs around the reign/time of King Solomon (10th century – 9th century BC). However, the linguistic elements in the text refer to a period from the 5th century BC onwards, and perhaps even later. Furthermore, even the unclear part of the text regarding the characters seems to suggest that the text has been put together.
Text-critical Research
For the full bibliographical references used in the description of the project below, click here.
Research context
The problem of the textual history of the Hebrew and Greek writings of the Old Testament (textual criticism) is the focus of growing scholarly interest, especially since and stimulated by the discoveries of new textual material in the surroundings of the Dead Sea. The exploration and the study of these texts generated new hypotheses concerning the origin and growth of the Old Testament and brought forth the development and refinement of text-critical methodology. However, sharply in contrast with this evolution is the way in which text-critical elements are used in literary and exegetical studies of Old Testament pericopes. Often, textual criticism in itself is given little or even no attention at all (Ausloos 1999: Lemmelijn 1996a:1-168; 1996b:124; 1997:69-70). If text-critical problems are addressed, it is generally merely in so far as they fit or can be manipulated within the framework of literary or redactional-critical hypotheses. Often, the text is ‘corrected’ in order to serve the desired exegetical reading. In other words, scholars confine themselves to (sometimes irresponsibly applied) conjectural criticism. Most of the time, the Massoretic text is studied even without a preliminary exploration of other existing textual materials.
This procedure is methodologically incorrect (Ausloos 1999; Lemmelijn 1998:111-112). In our view, textual criticism is indispensable as a first phase in the research of a biblical pericope (Lemmelijn 2001a:429‑439). Before one can offer a literary study of a text, one should first observe, analyse and evaluate the textual materials, i.e. the so-called ‘physical product’ in order to have a reliable basis for literary study. One cannot simply pretend that the Massoretic text is the absolutely certain and secure textual basis, as if it would be the original text. Rather, it is a text, standing next to other textual forms (Tov 1992:187-197; Aejmelaeus 1993:150-165), even if it gradually has become the dominant one as textus receptus. Therefore, if one intends to study the literary form of the text in a serious way, one cannot deny the importance of a thorough, preparatory study of the extant textual materials. It is in this respect that textual criticism becomes important, since it concerns the collection and evaluation of these data.
Against this background, it is significant to observe that concerning the book of Canticles, on which the proposed research project focuses, there is almost no research into the poetic text in its Hebrew and Greek textual forms (Bogaert 1993:624 – see yet Harl 1989 and 1995; Auwers, 1999; Cimosa 1999). Especially as to study of the translation technique of the Greek versions a meticulous analysis is lacking, although it should be the primary basis on which the text-critical evaluation of the variants should be built.
Aim
Against the above described background, the project intends to analyse the Hebrew and Greek texts of Canticles. In this respect, it aims at three distinctive innovative objectives:
1. The description (synoptic arrangement and interpretive description) of the Hebrew (MT, 4QCantabc, 6QCant) and Greek textual forms (Septuaginta and pre-hexaplaric material of kaige-Theodotion, Aquila and Symmachus) of the poetic book of Canticles.
2. Analysis of the translation technique of the above mentioned Greek textual forms of Canticles.
3. Text-critical evaluation of the extant Hebrew and Greek witnesses and their variant readings.
Method and phases of the project – innovating elements
In the text-critical study of Canticles, that will be done in this project, we distinguish three phases.
(1) The description of all variant readings in the different extant manuscripts. The Hebrew textual witnesses are MT (mainly in the manuscripts B19a en A) and the manuscripts of the Dead Sea (4QCantabc en 6QCant). In this respect, the recent scientific, diplomatic editions of BHQ and DJD are available. As to the Greek textual witnesses, mainly the Septuagint (LXX) is of crucial importance. Due to the fact that, with respect to Canticles, the scientific, eclectic editio magna of the Old Greek by the Göttingen-Unternehmen is not yet ready, a comparison between Rahlfs’ edition (1935) and new textual findings (cf. the reworking of Rahlfs’ index by Fraenkel, 2004) is necessary. In addition to LXX, there is the extant textual material in the ‘revisions’ of LXX, namely (kaige‑)Theodotion, Aquila en Symmachus (ca 1st-3rd century c.e.). With respect to this pre-hexaplaric material, the description of Field (1875) – in which the marginal notes of Greek manuscripts and patristic quotations were complemented by the Syro-Hexapla –, has to be updated by new findings of writings of the Church Fathers and catena that have been discovered since the end of the 19th century, in order to achieve a full, actual survey of the extant textual material (Treat, 1998; Ter Haar Romeny – Gentry, 2001).
(2) The study of the translation technique of the Greek textual forms and revisions of Canticles. Individual variants, which have been registered after the comparison of the Hebrew and Greek textual witnesses (phase 1), have not all come into existence on the basis of a variant in the consonantal text of the Hebrew Vorlage of the Greek forms of Canticles. They can equally be the result of the conscious or unconscious activity of the translator. Therefore, a thorough study of the translation technique is indispensable to enable to define the eventual responsibility of the translator at the origin of textual variants. Until today, there has not been done any fundamental research of this kind with respect to the poetic book of Canticles, neither for LXX itself, nor for the revisions of LXX. What actually has been done, however, by eminent international scholars as J. Barr, A. Aejmelaeus, S. Olofsson, S. Sipilä, I. Soisalon‑Soininen, R. Sollamo, E. Tov and A. Voitila, is the fundamental and pioneering work concerning the criteria for characterising the translation technique of the ancient Greek translations. In order to be able to distinguish the Greek translator of Canticles from the translators of the other books of the Hebrew Bible, the specific methods and skills have to be studied from a maximal number of point of views. Therefore, this study of the translation technique involves research into both quantitative and qualitative aspects, such as the linguistic and contextual exegetical renderings of the translator, the study of word sequence and segmentation, an accurate study of the quantitative rendering of the different words in the different textual versions and the consistency in the use of translation equivalents. Moreover, the way in which the Greek translator has rendered typically Hebrew grammatical constructions has to be investigated to enable the accurate description of the (lack of) freedom of the translator. Following this procedure, starting from the textual basis with its objective facts, the characterisation of the Greek variants, either as developed on the basis of the Hebrew Vorlage either as the result of the translation technique, gains some certainty, so that it offers a serious basis both for the assessment of the character of the textual version and of the Vorlage of the Greek text.
(3) On the basis of the description of the textual variants (phase 1) and the study of the translation technique (phase 2), the textual variants will be evaluated text-critically. In this respect, the text-critical evaluation of variant readings should primarily be done on the basis of the classical internal criteria (mainly the appropriateness of a reading in its immediate and broader literary context) on the one hand, and the individual characteristics of each textual variant on the other. The text-critical evaluation of the variant readings in the textual witnesses of Canticles is the main aim of this project. However, it is intrinsically based on and interwoven with the elaboration of the results of the study of the translation technique, for this is the only reliable basis on which it can be defined whether an individual variant originated in a different Vorlage or as a consequence of translation technique.
Thus, this research project aims at resulting in a – not yet available – exhaustive text-critical study of the book of Canticles, in which, as far as the Greek textual forms are concerned, the characterisation of the translation technique plays a central role. In addition, this research offers an innovating contribution to the development of a critical edition of the Greek versions of Canticles (Septuaginta-Unternehmens der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen and Hexapla Project Louisville, KY). With both international projects, contacts and co-operation have been established.
In the framework of this research, two doctoral dissertations are being prepared:
The book of Canticles.
A text-critical analysis of the textual witnesses Reinhart CEULEMANS
Promoter: prof. dr. Peter VAN DEUN
Co-promoter: prof. dr. Bénédicte LEMMELIJN
Abstract of the planned research
This project aims to analyse and evaluate, in a text-critical manner, the Hebrew (mt, 4QCantabc, 6QCant) and Greek textual witnesses (lxx and the pre-hexaplaric materials of kaivge and/or Theodotion, Aquila and Symmachus) of the poetic book of Canticles.
Method of analysing
In the text-critical analysis of the Hebrew and Greek textual witnesses, the relation between the texts in both languages will be investigated, as well as the relation between lxx and the revisions. In the particular working model the text-critical study consists of the registration, the interpretive description and evaluation of the textual witnesses. (1) To that end first a synopsis will be arranged. This offers an excellent exploration of the textual materials in se. Furthermore, a synoptic arrangement easily offers a clear survey of the textual situation. Finally, the variants can be registered immediately, so that every differing detail is noticed straightaway. (2) On the basis of this synoptic arrangement, in which the texts are placed in different columns, all textual variants are described. Some of them can be explained against the background of the specific grammar of Hebrew and Greek respectively. However, apart from these ‘grammatical’ variants, the text can also offer ‘text-relevant’ variants. Some of the latter can expand or shorten the text with one or several words, some even with a larger textual unit. Other variants can present the text itself in a different way. (3) Precisely these ‘text-relevant’ variants must subsequently be subdued to an elaborate text-critical evaluation.
All variant readings in the different manuscripts will be described text-critically. The Hebrew textual witnesses are mt (mainly in the manuscripts B19a and A) and the manuscripts of the Dead Sea (4QCantabc and 6QCant). In this respect recent scientific editions are available. As to the Greek witnesses, mainly lxx is of crucial importance. Due to the fact that, with respect to Canticles, the scientific eclectic edition of the Göttingen-Unternhemen isn’t ready yet, a comparison between Rahlf’s edition (1935, with an index reworked by Fränkel, 2004) and new textual findings is necessary. In addition to lxx, there is the extant textual material of the revisions, viz. kaivge and/or Theodotion, Aquila and Symmachus. The old edition by Field (1875) had to be updated with new findings of writings of the Church fathers and catenae that have been discovered since the end of the 19th century.
Method of evaluating
On the basis of the description of the textual variants (and without losing sight of the possible differences in translation technique) they will be evaluated text-critically. In this respect the classical internal criteria are taken into consideration (in which the stress mainly lies on the appropriateness of a reading in its immediate and broader literary context) on the one hand, and the individual characteristics of each textual variant on the other. Other formal criteria, such as research into fixed narrative patterns and the study of the early or late character of the language being used, can facilitate the evaluation. At this stage, one can begin to search for careful answers to text-critical questions, which come to the fore during the investigation, such as questions on eventual textual corruption, harmonisation, expansion or omission.
The result of the text-critical evaluation of the textual variants subsequently offers a distinction between ‘preferable’ variants and ‘synonymous’ variants. Preferable variants are readings which, after text-critical evaluation, are assessed to be ‘better’ or rather ‘more original’ than other variants. Synonymous variants are readings of which the preferable variant can’t be determined. They are different legitimate expressions of the same idea, and therefore also make an equal claim to originality.
Aim
Trough this text-critical analysis and evaluation the research project aims at resulting in a – not yet available – exhaustive text-critical study of the Hebrew and Greek textual witnesses of the book of Canticles. In addition, this research offers an innovating contribution to the development of a critical edition of the Greek versions of Canticles (Septuagint-Unternehmens der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen for lxx and The Hexapla Project, Louisville, KY for the revisions of kaivge and/or Theodotion, Symmachus and Aquila).
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The LXX Text of Canticles.
A Descriptive Study in Hebrew-Greek Translation Dries DE CROM
Promoter: prof. dr. Luc VAN DER STOCKT
Co-promoter: prof. dr. Hans AUSLOOS
The object of this research is a thorough study of the Hebrew-Greek translation of the Old Testament book of Canticles, as it is preserved in the corpus of the Septuagint. This is, first and foremost, a study of translation technique, i.e., the relationship between the (hypothetical) Hebrew source text and the Greek target text, with a strong text-critical and linguistic orientation. The immediate purpose of this research is to provide a general assessment, as well as a detailed analysis, of the translation character of LXX Canticles, in order better to evaluate the text-critical value of this Greek witness. However, the study will also explicitly refer to and depend upon developments in the field of Translation Studies, especially the methodological framework commonly referred to as Descriptive Translation Studies (Toury 1980; 1995). By virtue of its descriptive character and (theoretical) applicability to any case study in the history of translation, this model is to be preferred over other approaches, e.g. Skopos theory. The critical use of insights from modern-day Translation Studies correspond to the growing mutual interest between the disciplines of Septuagint Studies and Translation Studies (Pietersma 2006; van der Louw 2007).
Being based on the model developed by Toury, this study of LXX Canticles will consist of three parts.
I. Function
The first phase of the research will be devoted to the literary context of Hebrew-Greek translation in general, and LXX Canticles in particular. For this purpose, an appeal will be made to a discourse analysis of relevant source texts, on the one hand, and a systemic analysis of translation within the literature of the Hellenistic and early Roman eras, on the other hand. Firstly, a thorough rhetorical analysis of such texts as the Letter of Aristeas, the prologue to Greek Ben Sirah and the colophon to the Greek Esther will be conducted. These analyses will provide an answer to the question whether it is possible to speak of a (more or less) uniform and distinctive discourse on Hebrew-Greek translation, and what this discourse tells us about the historical and literary circumstances. The indirect value of these texts as historical sources will be stressed throughout. Consequently, an attempt will be made to define the position of Hebrew-Greek translation within its literary system, on the basis of (among other things) a typological comparison of contemporary types of translation, a survey of modern theories on LXX origins, and research into the autonomy and autonomous normativity of Hebrew-Greek translation in contrast to other forms of Greek literature. Emphasis will be put on the heterogeneity of Hebrew-Greek translation, as regards the background and function as well as the textual character of individual translation units. This phase of the research will lead to a prospective hypothesis regarding the origin, character and purpose of the Greek translation of the book of Canticles, which will have to be put to the test of textual analysis.
II. Product
The second research phase will consist of a thorough analysis of the LXX text of Canticles, compared with MT, being the closest approximation of its hypothetical Vorlage. Since the Göttingen edition of Canticles has not yet appeared, the text provided by Rahlfs will be used as the basis for comparison. His text will, however, be compared with the results of the text-critical research conducted by Treat (1996). The scarce remains of Greek papyri and the fragments of Canticles from Qumran (4QCantabc, 6QCant) will also be involved in the textual analysis.
In addition, the analysis will focus on the linguistic character of LXX Canticles as a Greek text. The question of linguistic interference, which is at the heart of contemporary research into translation, will be of central importance. Emphasis will be put on the comparison with Greek literary, papyrological and epigraphical sources of the same age, in order to assess the linguistic character of LXX Canticles in a correct way. Only in this way can the presence of so-called ‘Hebraisms’ in the translation be detected with any accuracy.
III. Process
The final phase of the research will focus on translation technique in the proper sense of the term. Through a number of thematic studies, the different aspects of the translation process will be mapped out. These analyses will of course depend heavily upon the results of the previous research phase.
It is only evident that such terms as ‘literal’ or ‘free’ translations are not adequate for characterising the Septuagint text of Canticles. The insights gained mostly by the so-called ‘Finnish school’ (cf. Lemmelijn 1998) will provide us with a methodological framework that is suited to the peculiar nature of Septuagint texts. It will allow us to analyse the translational options of the translator from as many points of view as possible. Consequently, quantitative (segmentation, word order, plusses and minuses etc.) as well as qualitative aspects of the translation (choice and consistence of equivalents, adequate rendering of typically Hebrew grammatical constructions) will be examined. Only then can the translation as a whole and its individual variants be evaluated in an objective way.
The initial focus will be put on such topics as the lexical profile of LXX Canticles, articulation patterns, verbal syntax etc. Aditionally, attention will be given to Aramaic influences on the Hebrew of Canticles, and how the Greek translator handled these. With this inquiry, the research is orientated towards questions of heterolingalism in translation and translation in multilingual contexts (Meylaerts 2006).
The relations between LXX Canticles and the so-called kaige group (Barthélemy 1963) will also be investigated in this phase of the research, according to the principles and method developed by Gentry (1995). For the interpretation of the results of this research, good use will be made of insights from Translation Studies regarding translational norms and heterogeneous translational behaviour.
This research will result in a nuanced insight in the translation profile of LXX Canticles, which is a necessary prerequisite for a text-critical evaluation of this text form of the book of Canticles. As such this research is part of the project Canticles (Song of Songs) in Hebrew and Greek. A Comparative Analysis of the Translation Technique of the Septuagint and the so-called Pre-Hexaplaric Revisions (Department of Biblical Studies – Centre for Septuagint Studies and Textual Criticism).
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